Confrontation
This is a practice often done prior to an intervention where the patient is encouraged to attend to experiences that they have been avoiding.
Countertransference
This refers to the analyst’s feelings and attitudes towards the patient: his/her reaction to the patient’s transference, how his/her own experiences impact his/her understanding of the patient, and the analyst’s emotional responses to the patient.
Defense Mechanisms
Defense mechanisms are used by the ego as a way to deal with conflict of problems in life. Operating at an unconscious level, defense mechanisms help to reduce negative feelings (e.g. anxiety and guilt). Common defense mechanisms include repression, denial, and projection.
Denial
Denial is an individual’s refusal to accept certain or confront (or all) aspects of a given reality in order to avoid potential feelings of discomfort. It exists on a continuum as it can be seen as just a normal reaction to a stressful event or to severe psychosis. While commonly defined as a type of defense mechanism, denial plays a role in all defense mechanisms. Freud also referred to it as disavowal.
Dream
It is a mental event that consists of hallucinations involving imagery and emotions. Dreams occur during the rapid-eye movement (REM) stage during sleep. According to Freud, current concerns and unconscious childhood wishes are present during the day and require gratification and it is dreams that allow us to respond to this demands while continuing to sleep (e.g., a person who is thirsty dreams about drinking water which allows him to continue sleeping rather than having to wake up and satisfy his thirst).
Ego
Sigmund Freud theorized that the mind was divided into three parts: id, ego and superego . The function of the ego can be described as running interference between the id and the superego. It mediates between the drives of the id and the need for self-preservation. The ego is responsible for the development of the skills needed to function in the world, for example, impulse control, perception, evaluation and judgment.
Ego Ideal
This is a part of the superego that contains standards, values and moral ideals. Failure to meet these standards can cause feelings of guilt or shame, while success can enhance self-esteem.
Elektra Complex
A term coined by Jung as the female counterpoint to what Freud called the oedipus complex, it takes its name from the Greek myth of Elektra who, along with her brother Orestes, avenged the murder of their father, Agamemnon, by killing their mother Clytemnaestra and her lover Aegisthus. The term describes the urge of a 3-6 year old girl to have her father to herself, excluding her mother. Freud did not use this term, but continued to use oedipus complex to refer to the phenomenon in both genders.
Fantasy
A fantasy loosely refers to an imagined situation that expresses certain desires or aims of the imagining individual. It can occur at the conscious level, also known as a daydream, or unconsciously, sometimes referred to as phantasy.
Fixation
Fixation is a state where a person becomes attached to or overly invested in another individual or object. Fixation is the result of conflict occurring during the psychosexual stages of development. Due to frustration or overindulgence occurs, the libido becomes focused on that stage leading to problematic behaviors later on (e.g., an individual with an oral fixation may engage in nail biting).
Id
Sigmund Freud theorized that the mind was divided into three parts: id, ego and superego. The id is the part of the mind that contains one’s most basic and instinctive drives. It is governed by sexual and aggressive desires and pleasure seeking. The contents of the id are entirely unconscious; Freud stated that the goal of analysis is to uncover what is repressed in the id so that, “where id was, there ego shall be.” (Sigmund Freud, 1933, New Introductory Letters on Psychoanalysis, Standard Edition, 22.
Libido
A term generally used to refer to one’s sexual desires or more specifically, the mental energy responsible for one’s sex drive. This concept represents Freud’s notion that sexual interest exists throughout life and that it is responsible for activities that involve sexual desire and/or affection.
Oedipus Complex
Freud used the Greek myth of Oedipus to illustrate a childhood developmental stage, occurring between the ages of three and six, when a child desires to have the parent of the opposite sex all to him/herself, to the exclusion of the other parent. In the myth, Oedipus kills Laius, who he does not realize is his father, and then marries his widow, Jokasta, who is actually Oedipus’s mother.
Parapraxis (Freudian Slip)
Revealing an unconscious desire or conflict through a mistake, for example, a slip of the tongue or forgetting someone’s name.
Pleasure Principle
The driving force of the id, this refers to one’s desire to obtain immediate gratification of needs by obtaining pleasure and avoiding pain. When our basic needs are not met, feelings of anxiety may develop.
Psychodynamic
Psychodynamic psychotherapy is a form of psychotherapy derived from psychoanalytic theories and modeled after a psychoanalytic model of mental functioning. Psychodynamic psychotherapy is primarily for individuals who will benefit from a more focused method of treatment that is active and focuses on the realities of one’s daily life. Other terms include psychoanalytic psychotherapy, insight-oriented Psychotherapy, and expressive psychotherapy
Repression
Repression is a defensive process where an individual’s impulses and instinctual desires are blocked from entering one’s conscious. Regarded by Freud as the cornerstone of defense mechanisms, the process of repression involves unconsciously censoring ideas or memories deemed unacceptable.
Resistance
Resistance refers to a patient’s unconscious opposition to the unveiling and exploration of painful memories during psychoanalysis. It is often conveyed through mental process, fantasies, memories, character defensives, and behaviors. While it initially occurs unconsciously, it may persist long after the patient is made consciously aware of this behavior.
Superego
Sigmund Freud theorized that the mind was divided into three parts: id, ego and superego. The superego can be thought of as the part of the mind that acts as the conscience. Its function is to stop or punish behavior that is unacceptable according the ego ideal, i.e., the standards, values, and images of perfection that begin to develop in childhood, and which some psychoanalysts believe to develop over a lifetime. Failure to live up to these standards results in feeling of guilt or shame. Success in living up to the ego ideal results in enhanced self-esteem, i.e. feeling good about oneself.
Transference
Transference is the projection onto another person (e.g., the analyst) of feelings, past associations, or experiences. This is an important concept in psychoanalysis because it demonstrates that past experiences impact the present. Interpreting transference in the psychoanalytic setting can shed light on unresolved conflicts.
Unconscious
Sigmund Freud proposed that there are three parts (levels) of the mind, the conscious, preconscious, and the unconscious. The unconscious is the part of the mind that stores feelings, thoughts, and urges unaware to the individual. These mental contents and processes often influence the conscious experience even though we are unaware of their existence.
The unconscious mind houses the preconscious, a small section that houses material that is non-threatening, and easily brought to mind. But deeper in the unconscious mind are the instinctual drives, the wishes, desires, demands, and needs that are kept hidden from out conscious selves because of the conflicts and pain they would cause if they were brought to bear every day. Psychoanalytic personality theory tells us that the personality consists of three separate, but forever intermingling elements, id, ego, and superego. The id section of a personality is by far the largest, the only section that we are born with, and the section that contains the unconscious thoughts, it is raw, unorganized, and from the time of birth it tries to reduce tension caused by our primary drives. The ego, a section that develops soon after birth, balances the instinctual desires of the id and the realities of the outside world. Last of course is the superego, the final personality structure that is developed in childhood, and represent the rights and wrongs of society, contained within the superego is the conscience, the part of us that prevents us from behaving in a morally deplorable way and is responsible for guilt. Psychoanalytic personality theory is not without its virtues; Freud’s proposed five psychosexual stages – oral, anal, phallic-oedipal, latency and genital – are all supported in life.
Freudian Theory
In simple terms, Sigmund Freud’s theory suggests that human behavior is influenced by unconscious memories, thoughts, and urges. This theory also proposes that the psyche comprises three aspects: the id, ego, and superego. The id is entirely unconscious, while the ego operates in the conscious mind. The superego operates both unconsciously and consciously.
Psychology students spend a fair amount of time learning about Freud’s theory. Even those outside the psychology field often have some awareness of Freudian psychoanalysis, the school of thought created by Sigmund Freud.
Knowing more about Freudian psychology, along with the key concepts in psychoanalysis—like the unconscious, fixations, defense mechanisms, and dream symbols—can help you understand the influence Freud’s theories have had on contemporary psychologists.
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Click Play to Learn More About Sigmund Freud’s Theories
This video has been medically reviewed by Daniel B. Block, MD.
In this brief overview of Freudian theory, learn more about some of the major ideas proposed by Sigmund Freud.
Freud’s Theory of Talk Therapy
One of Freud’s greatest contributions to psychology was talk therapy, the notion that simply talking about problems can help alleviate them. It was through his association with his close friend and colleague Josef Breuer that Freud became aware of a woman known in the case history as Anna O.
The young woman’s real name was Bertha Pappenheim. She became a patient of Breuer’s after suffering a bout of what was then known as hysteria. Symptoms included blurred vision, hallucinations, and partial paralysis.
Breuer observed that discussing her experiences provided some relief from her symptoms. It was Pappenheim herself who began referring to the treatment as the “talking cure.”
While Anna O. is often described as one of Freud’s patients, the two never actually met. Freud often discussed her case with Breuer, however, and the two collaborated on an 1895 book based on her treatment titled Studies in Hysteria.
Freud concluded that her hysteria was the result of childhood sexual abuse, a view that ended up leading to a rift in Freud and Breuer’s professional and personal relationship. Anna O. may not have actually been Freud’s patient, but her case informed much of Freud’s work and later theories on therapy and psychoanalysis.
Freud’s Theory of Personality
According to Freud’s theory, there are a few different factors that affect personality. They include cathexis and anticathexis, along with life and death instincts.
Cathexis and Anticathexis
According to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, all psychic energy is generated by libido. Freud suggested that our mental states were influenced by two competing forces: cathexis and anticathexis.
- Cathexis was described as an investment of mental energy in a person, idea, or object.
- Anticathexis involves the ego blocking the socially unacceptable needs of the id. Repressing urges and desires is one common form of anticathexis, but this involves a significant investment of energy.
If you are hungry, for example, you might create a mental image of a delicious meal that you have been craving. In other cases, the ego might harness some energy from the id (the primitive mind) to seek out activities related to the desire in order to disperse excess energy from the id. Sticking with the same example, if you can’t actually seek out food to appease your hunger, you might instead thumb through a cookbook or browse through your favorite recipe blog.
According to Freud’s theory, there is only so much libidinal energy available. When a lot of energy is devoted to suppressing urges via anticathexis, there is less energy for other processes.
Life Instincts and Death Instincts
Freud also believed that much of human behavior was motivated by two driving instincts: life instincts and death instincts.
- Life instincts (Eros) are those that relate to a basic need for survival, reproduction, and pleasure. They include such things as the need for food, shelter, love, and sex.
- Death instincts (Thanatos) are the result of an unconscious wish for death, which Freud believed all humans have. Self-destructive behavior was one expression of the death drive, according to Freud. However, he believed that these death instincts were largely tempered by life instincts.
Freud’s Theory of the Psyche
In Freudian theory, the human mind is structured into two main parts: the conscious and unconscious mind. The conscious mind includes all the things we are aware of or can easily bring into awareness. The unconscious mind, on the other hand, includes all of the things outside of our awareness—all of the wishes, desires, hopes, urges, and memories that we aren’t aware of, yet continue to influence behavior.
Freudian psychology compares the mind to an iceberg. The tip of the iceberg that is actually visible above the water represents just a tiny portion of the mind, while the huge expanse of ice hidden underneath the water represents the much larger unconscious.
There is some question as to whether the iceberg metaphor came from Freud himself or one of his biographers, as some researchers indicate that there was no mention of an iceberg in Freud’s writings.
In addition to these two main components of the mind, Freudian theory also divides human personality into three major components: the id, ego, and superego.
- The id is the most primitive part of the personality that is the source of all our most basic urges. The id is entirely unconscious and serves as the source of all libidinal energy.
- The ego is the component of personality that deals with reality and helps ensure that the demands of the id are satisfied in ways that are realistic, safe, and socially acceptable.
- The superego is the part of the personality that holds all of the internalized morals and standards that we acquire from our parents, family, and society at large.
Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development
Freudian theory suggests that as children develop, they progress through a series of psychosexual stages. At each stage, the libido’s pleasure-seeking energy is focused on a different part of the body.
The five stages of psychosexual development are:
- The oral stage: The libidinal energies are focused on the mouth.
- The anal stage: The libidinal energies are focused on the anus.
- The phallic stage: The libidinal energies are focused on the penis or clitoris.
- The latent stage: A period of calm in which little libidinal interest is present.
- The genital stage: The libidinal energies are focused on the genitals.
The successful completion of each stage leads to a healthy personality as an adult. If, however, a conflict remains unresolved at any particular stage, the individual might remain fixated or stuck at that particular point of development.
A fixation can involve an over-dependence or obsession with something related to that phase of development. For example, a person with an “oral fixation” is believed to be stuck at the oral stage of development. Signs of an oral fixation might include excessive reliance on oral behaviors such as smoking, biting fingernails, or eating.
Freud’s Theory of Dream Analysis
The unconscious mind played a critical role in all of Freud’s theories, and he considered dreams to be one of the key ways to take a peek into what lies outside our conscious awareness.
He dubbed dreams “the royal road to the unconscious” and believed that by examining dreams, he could see not only how the unconscious mind works but also what it is trying to hide from conscious awareness.
Freud believed the content of dreams could be broken down into two different types:
- The manifest content of a dream included all the actual content of the dream—the events, images, and thoughts contained within the dream. The manifest content is essentially what the dreamer remembers upon waking.
- The latent content, on the other hand, is all the hidden and symbolic meanings within the dream. Freud believed that dreams were essentially a form of wish fulfillment. By taking unconscious thoughts, feelings, and desires and transforming them into less threatening forms, people are able to reduce the ego’s anxiety.
Freud often utilized the analysis of dreams as a starting point in his free association technique. When working with a client, he would focus on a particular dream symbol, then use free association to see what other thoughts and images immediately came to the client’s mind.
Freud’s Theory of Defense Mechanisms
Even if you’ve never studied Freud’s theories before, you have probably heard the term “defense mechanisms.” When someone seems unwilling to face a painful truth, you might accuse them of being “in denial.” If they try to look for a logical explanation for unacceptable behavior, you might suggest that they are “rationalizing.”
For instance, rationalizations for smoking might include “one cigarette won’t hurt me” or “if I quit, I’ll just gain weight.”
Denial and rationalization represent different types of defense mechanisms, or tactics that the ego uses to protect itself from anxiety. Some of the best-known mechanisms of defense include denial, repression, and regression, but there are many more.
Freud’s Theory of Female Psychology
Freud’s perspective on women was, and continues to be, one of his most controversial. One of his theories relating to female psychology is known as the Electra complex, also sometimes referred to as penis envy.
According to Freud, females start out close to their mothers. But once they realize they don’t have a penis, they start to hate their moms for mutilating them, then become close to their dad. At the same time, females start to imitate their mom because they fear the loss of her affection.
The Electra complex is the opposite of the Oedipus complex, which Freud contended is when a male child develops a sexual attachment to his mother, viewing his father as a sexual rival.
Freud’s Theory of Religion
Freud theorized that religious beliefs are essentially delusions, and also that turning away from these types of ideologies is preferable because religion does not lead to happiness and fulfillment; in fact, it is a belief structure not based on evidence.
Freud felt that a person’s religious views were, at least in part, a result of their relationship with their father. He believed that people tend to depict their idea of a “God” based on the qualities and traits of the father figure in their life and that these qualities changed as their relationship with their father changed.
It is believed that Freud’s theory of religion was influenced by his relationship with his own father. Freud had a Jewish upbringing, which he said he had no desire to change, yet he also stated that he was “completely estranged from the religion of his fathers—as well as from every other religion.”
Impact of Freudian Theory
While Freud’s theories have been widely criticized, they are still important because his work has made contributions to psychology as we know it today.
Psychotherapy
Many contemporary psychologists do not give credence to Freud’s ideas, but the theories remain important. And research has validated the effectiveness of various forms of talk therapy, such as one finding that psychodynamic therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy were both effective for treating anxiety in college-age students.
Freud’s belief that mental problems could be resolved by actually talking about them helped revolutionize psychotherapy.
Freud’s theories have also sparked a major change in how we view mental illness by suggesting that not all psychological problems have physiological causes.
Science
Freud’s contributions have also impacted the foundational science of what we know about psychology today. His idea that our thoughts are largely unconscious has withstood scientific scrutiny, for instance, retaining their importance in understanding human development and behavior.
Culture
Freud has even influenced thoughts about how society has formed into what it is today. Some believe that his theories help explain some of the successes of modern society while also explaining some of its failures.
A Word From Verywell
To understand where psychology is today, it is essential to take a look at where we’ve been and how we got here. Freud’s work provides insight into an important movement in psychology that helped transform how we think about mental health and how we approach psychological disorders.
By studying Freud’s theories and those that came after, you gain a better understanding of psychology’s fascinating history. Many terms such as defense mechanism, Freudian slip, and anal retentive have become a part of our everyday language. By learning about his work and theories, you can understand how these ideas and concepts became woven into the fabric of popular culture.
Frequently Asked Questions
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How did Freud develop his theory?
After starting his career as a doctor at Vienna General Hospital, Freud entered private practice, specializing in the treatment of psychological disorders. It was during this time in private practice that Freud started to develop his theories.
These theories were later refined through Freud’s associations with Josef Breuer, a colleague and friend who was treating a patient with hysteria. Based on this case, Freud developed the theory that many neuroses originate from trauma that has transitioned from the conscious mind to the unconscious mind.
Learn More:
The Life of Sigmund Freud
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How did Erikson’s theory differ from Freud’s?
While Freud’s psychosexual theory is rooted in basic needs and physiological driving forces, Erikson’s psychosocial theory places more emphasis on one’s environment.
Erikson’s and Freud’s theories also vary in terms of stages of development. For instance, the first stage of development according to Freudian theory is the oral stage, while the first stage of development according to Erikson’s theory is trust versus mistrust.
Another difference is the length of development, with Freud believing that most development occurs in early childhood and Erikson contending that people continue to develop well into their adult years.
Learn More:
Comparison of Erikson’s and Freud’s Theories
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What are some positive qualities of Freud’s theory?
Freud’s theory has shaped the field of psychology, both in theory and treatment applications. It has also inspired others in the field to better understand the mind and how it develops, developing their own theories in turn. Without Freud, we might not have talk therapy, which research supports for helping people manage and treat mental health issues such as anxiety and depression.
Learn More:
Freud’s Theories and Their Impact
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Why is Freud’s psychosexual theory of personality so controversial?
Freud’s psychosexual theory is hard to test scientifically, leaving questions about its validity. Another concern is that the theory is based on case studies versus research. Some have issues with Freud’s theory being focused more on male psychosexual development, offering very little insight into females.
It also refers to homosexual preferences as a deviation of normal psychosexual development, though many psychologists today feel that sexual orientation is more biological in nature.
